From Stockholm to Rio

Elliot, L. (1998) ‘From Stockholm to Rio’ chapter in The Global Politics of the Environment. Macmillan Press, London, pp

• Two key events 1972 UN conference on the human enviro (Stockholm conference) - where international debate began on the environment. Then Rio Summit or Earth Summit. Prior to this environment was defined scientifically not politically. Between stockholm and Rio the scientific knowledge and public concern grew in tandem - > inc scope of concerns, and multilateral treaties (20 were signed).
• Pre-stockholm - Prior Lynton Caldwell  has categoiries as either wilderness and wildlife conservation, maritime pollution and nuclear proliferation. Conservation dates to 1872 when Swiss proposed commission to protect migrating birds. North Pacific Fur Seal treaty 1911. The 1946 International convention for the regulation of whaling is still in place today. Wildlife then moved to ecosystems. 1971 Convention on conservation of wetlands. While a lot of this was with state and governments, NGO's were increaseingly concerend in 60's. Greenpeace founded in 69. Academic work also set the schene for Stockholm. Much of it represented a reapraisal ofof the values of industrialisation and a rethink of impact of human activity. Rachael Carlson and other Biologists started to map a trend of impending disaster on the environment. Tragedy of the commons. Many conncerned about population. Paul Ehrlrich - the population Bomb (1968). Limits to growth - a report for the club of rome argues for cutting back based on global-systems computer modelling. Carrying capacity and limites were refuted by those that thought that innovation could save us.
• United Nations Conference on the Human Environment - Resolution 2398 - focus attention of govts and public opinion on urgency of question'. Resolution 2581 - ensured conference would generate prctical means to encourage and provide guidelines for action...". Communist block withdrew stating that it was a capitalist problem. Developing nations cautious that environment would be at the sake of development. Only two heads of govrerenment attended, NGOs could present formal statements. There was a declaration, an action -plan and an organisational framework. There were 26 principles in the declaration - compromise of shared interests of states/sovereiginty and the competing interests of developing countries. principles 9-12 focus on aid, technology and other assistance in overcoming underdevelopment. Most quoted is 21 - states sovereign nrights over its resources as well as responsibility for env damage beyond its broders - o guidance as how to reconcile. -> "wishlist of items that were inconsistent and intelleectually incoherent" Palmer (1992). Adopted a less well known action plan - 109 recommendations relating to human settlements, developments, and the social dimensions of env degredaation. Third outcome was set up UNEP - developed countries cautious about funding. Developing nations reluctant - if it put restrictions on development, existing UN agencies jelously guarded existing environment-related prerogatives. Thus it is a programme, with role of coordinator and catalyst - large governing council . Major achievement of Stockholm was the first gathering of leaders to debate env issues.
• Between Stockholm and Rio - More knolwege about issues and causes. Inc in NGO's. Recognition that env probles require more than scientific and technical solutions but attention to complexity of causes and social, eco, and political consequences. Progress was piecemeil - lot of activity not much action. Some major conferences such as Scientific committee on problems of the human environment (SCOPE). Public concern escalated due to a number of disasateres such as Amoco Cadiz oil spil, melt down on three mile island, methyl icocyanate gas leak in india, and chernobyl.  Chernobyl in particular reminded people of transboundary nature of pollution.  Number of agreements to mitigate 1972 London dumping converntion. 1989, 116 countries adopted Basel convention on centrol of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal.  Also convenion to protect ozone - 1985. There was little attempt to deal with broader questions until 1983 UN general assembly -> idependent commmission - Brundtland Commission -23 members. Spepcial advisers, advisory panels, public hearings. Report - Our common future was result. In 1988 WMO and UNEP established IPCC involving 100 scientific, legal and policy experts from 60 countries. G7 in 1988 also argued that urgent action was needed. 1989 UN general assembly passed a resolution to protect the world from climate change.
• UN confeernce on environment and development - Resp;itop 44/228 outlined continuing deterioration of env, deg of global life-support due to unsustainable patterns of consumption. Identified protection of atmosphere, water, land resorces, biological diversity, waste management, and issues related to urban settlements, poverty and human health conditions. Conference was to find strategies to reverse env degradation and promote sustainability. Preparatory process engaged developed and developing as well as other UN bodies. Select NGO's also. 4 Prepcoms taking five weeks. Agreement was reached on 85% of principles. The conference was in Rio from 3-14th of June 1992 after 2 days of procedural consultations (including electrion of 39 VP's). 178 national delegations, 1400 NGO;s 8000 media. 100 heads of state in attendance and on the last two days they met. The conference agrements - agenda 21 and statement of forest principles were adpoted on those two days. Maurice Strong had hoped the conference wouldmove env issues to centre of eco policyand -> international cooperation.
• The rio declaration on Environment and Development - Rio declaration - 27 principles to guide govts . Goal -> New and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation. More inclusive than predecessor. Access to inforation, women, youth and indigenous recognised, open economies, precautionary principle, peace. Assessments focus on whether it prvides a set of principles o shape actionand forge global partnerships. Not sure if it codifies antyhing new and whether it really provides a framework. Many (such as Johan Holmberg) suggest tht document was heavily compromised during negotiations (1992)  and others say the focus was too much on development concerns. Two concepts - first is that it wa shaped to much by state sovereignty and not global stewardship and second it  illuminates the difficulties of reconciling env and dev concents with sustainable development.
• Agenda 21 - Non Binding plan for implementing principles. section 1 - social and economic, section two is environmental issues, section three focusing on ajor groups, section four,- means of implementation such as financial, trechnology transfer etc. There wre a lot of compromises such as dealing wiht developing nations, occupied nations, atmospheric issues, and energy efficiency. Donor countries committed .7 per cent of GNP but without deadlines - few haave met it. Other issues were refered to other fora.  Fish stocks and soverienty, technology transfer etc. Although weakened by compromise Maurice Strong felt it was still the most comprehensive programme of action on environmental concerns and at least aired the complexity of concerns.
• Conclusion - Rio was momentus awareness raising. Others felt it fell well short. While the agenda of environmental issues has expeanded...it was not clear that the political will to address issues had moveed forward